Behaviorism Notes and other Words Learning – A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. – Responding Operand Conditioning – Acting Observational Conditioning – Observing Classical Conditioning – A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. -The organism as responding to the environment (fails to capture active nature of the organism and its influence on the environment. ) -Explains involuntary responses – Pavlov -Reflexes – Automatic stimulus-response connections.
-Unconditional Stimulus (US) – A stimulus that provides a response without prior learning. -Unconditional Response – (UP) – An unlearned response that is automatically elected by the US -Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Previous neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the condition response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. -Conditioned Response (CR) – Learned response to CS that occurs after CS-US paring. (Pavlov, 1927) – (De Cola & Fanselow, 1995) – The interval between the CS & US is one of the most important aspects of classical conditioning – Congruity – Degree of association of the stimuli.
– (Kimble, 1961) – Conditioned responses developed when the interval between the CS and US is very short, as in a matter of seconds. In many instances, optimal spacing is a fraction of a second. -Generalization – The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the conditioned response. -Discrimination – The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to respond to others.
-Extinction – The weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus -Spontaneous Recovery – The process by which a condition response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning. -Stimulus Substitution – Pavlov’s theory of how classical conditioning works; the nervous system is structured in such a way that the CS and the US bond together and eventually the CS substituted for the US. -Information Theory – Contemporary explanation of why classical condition works; key to understand classical conditioning focuses on the information an organism gets from the situation. – (E. C.
Tolman, 1932) – The organism used the CS as a sign or expectation that a US will follow. -Phobias – Irrational fears -Counter conditioning – A procedure for weakening a CR by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response incompatible with the fear. – (Mary Cover Jones, 1924) – Eliminated fear in 3 year old. -Some behaviors associated with health problems or mental disorders can involved classical conditioning. -Operant Conditioning -Form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. -The behavior operates on the environments, and the environment in turn operates on the behavior.
-Explains voluntary actions -Stimuli that govern behavior follow the behavior (as oppose to Classical C. ) -E. L. Thorndike -Experimented with power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior -Law of Effect – Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthen, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
– S-R Theory -Thorndike’s view – The correct stimulus-response association strengths and the incorrect association weakens because of the consequences of the organism’s actions – Organism’s behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response. -B. F. Skinner – Developed concept of operant conditioning (1938) -Pigeon-guided missile – Walden Two (1948) -Presented idea of scientifically managed society -Utopian society through behavioral control -Our behavior is controlled by environmental forces is to ignore science and reality -Skinner box -A device in a box would deliver food pellets into a tray at random. After a rate became accustomed to the box, Skinner installed a lever and observed the rat’s behavior. As the hungry rat explored the box, it occasionally pressed the ever and a food pellet would be dispenses.
-Reinforcement (reward) – A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur -Positive Reinforcement – The frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a stimulus -Negative Reinforcement – The frequency of a response increases because the response is either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus. -Punishment – A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur. -Time Interval – Learning more efficient when the interval between response and reinforcement is a few seconds rather than minutes or hours. – (Holland, 1996) – Learning is more efficient under immediate rather than delayed consequences. -Shaping and Chaining -Shaping – The process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior.
-Chaining – Technique used to reach a complex sequence, or chain or behaviors. The procedure begins by shaping the final response in the sequence. Then you work backward until a chain of behaviors is learned. -Primary and Secondary Reinforcement -Positive reinforcement -Primary Reinforcement – Involves the use of reinforces that are innately satisfying, that is they do not take any learning on the organism’s part to make them pleasurable. -Secondary Reinforcement – Acquires its positive value through experience; secondary reinforces are learned or conditioned reinforces. -Token Rein forcer – Money -Schedules of Reinforcement -Partial Reinforcement- Responses are not reinforced each time they occur -Schedules of reinforcement – “Timetables” that determine when a response will be reinforced.
-Fixed-Ratio Schedule – Reinforces a behavior after a set number of responses. -Variable-Ratio Schedule – A timetable in which responses are rewarded an average number of time, but on an unpredictable basis. -Fixed-Interval Schedule – Reinforces the first appropriated response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. -Variable-Interval Schedule – A timetable in which a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. -The closer the schedule is to continuous reinforcement, the faster the individual learns. However, once behavior is learned, the intermittent schedules can be effective n maintaining behavior.
– (Skinner, 961) – Rate of behavior varies from one schedule to the next -Fixed-ratio schedule produced a high rate of behavior with a pause occurring between the reinforce and the behavior -Variable-ration schedule elicits a high rate of behavior when the pause after the reinforcement is eliminated… This schedule usually elicits the highest response rate of all four schedules. -Interval schedules produce behavior at a lower rate than ratio schedules -Extinction – A previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and there is decreased tendency to perform the response. -Generalization -Giving the same response to similar stimuli. -Discrimination – The tendency to respond only to those stimuli that are correlated with reinforcement. -Discriminative Stimuli – Signal that a response will be reinforced -Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) – Application of operant condition principles to change human behavior.
Observational Learning – (aka imitation or modeling) Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone’s behavior. – (Band ura (1965) – Bobo dolls Cognitive Factors in Learning -S-O-R Model – A model of learning that gives some importance to cognitive factors -S = stimulus -O = organism, “black box” -R = response -Cognitive map – An organism’s mental representation of the structure of physical space. -Insight learning – A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight or understanding of a problem’s solution -Preparedness – Species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain way but not in others -Instinctive Drift – Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. -Taste aversion -if an organism ingests a substance that poisons but does not kill it, the organism often develops considerable distaste for that substance.